Abstract

The study of gender roles, their formations, and their importance within peer interactions, is an important aspect of understanding the social development of children. This study evaluated the four general personality types that are found in both sexes: masculine, feminine, androgynous and undifferentiated, and how these personality types effected the social adjustment and aggression status of children.

It was found that children with masculine personality types were generally well socially adjusted, but were often avoided due to high aggression levels and were therefore more often depressed. Children with feminine personality types generally scored in the middle of all of the groups on their social adjustment scales, however, feminine girls had significantly higher rejection levels. Children with androgynous traits were the most well adjusted of all the other gender role groups. Androgynous children were generally the most accepted and the least distressed, lonely, avoided, and depressed. Children with undifferentiated personality types were significantly the least well adjusted. They were the least accepted by their peers and the most avoided, lonely, distressed, and depressed.

Introduction

There is much research on the differences in social behaviors between boys and girls. Biological sex, however, is only one indicator of how children might be expected to behave with socialization, parenting, peers, and other factors influencing development. Children demonstrate both gender-normative and non-normative behaviors as they develop personality traits and social preferences. Therefore, children have been classified into gender categories based on their sex typed behaviors, rather that their biological sex.

Gender-normative behaviors are behaviors that are more socially accepted throughout society as well as within peer groups, such as boys playing ÒcowboyÓ or kick ball, and girls playing Òdress-upÓ or with dolls. Gender non-normative behaviors might include boys playing more quite games like ÒhouseÓ and girls playing football or other relatively active games. The examination of gender roles and gender characteristics is an important aspect of child development because they are associated with childrenÕs social behavior and adjustment (Adler & Kless, 1979).

Children generally fall into four groups based on gender roles: masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated. Researchers have defined these groups according to their social preferences and behaviors. Androgynous children are defined as having characteristics traditionally associated with males and females. Masculine children are defined as having characteristics associated with externalizing behaviors. Feminine children are defined as having internalizing traits. Undifferentiated children are defined as being strong in neither masculine nor feminine traditional traits.

Children who exhibit masculine traits, regardless of sex, have been found to exhibit higher levels of externalizing behaviors (openness, outgoingness, less self-restraint) compared to feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated children. More boys than girls tend to be categorized as masculine, but regardless of sex, masculine children tend to be more popular than feminine boys and girls. Despite their popularity, masculine children have been found to demonstrate relatively low levels of positive peer interaction (Adler & Kless, 1979). Finally, higher levels of masculinity (in both boys and girls) are related to independency, high self-esteem, and are disconnected with internalizing problems (Lundy & Rosenberg, 1987; Wilson & Cairns, 1988).

Children who exhibit feminine traits tend to demonstrate internalizing problems and low-self esteem. On the other hand, they have been found to maintain closer interpersonal relationships than children in the other gender role categories (Rose & Montemeyer, 1994).

Androgynous children have been found to have high self-esteem and are often more accepted by their peers than children in the other gender categories (Massad, 1981). In addition, androgynous children tend to have better parent-child relationships than children in the other gender categories (Tucker, 1998).

Undifferentiated children are strong in neither masculine nor feminine traditional traits. Very little is known about this group of children. It has been found, however, that undifferentiated children in contrast to androgynous children have very low self-esteem levels (Alpert-Gillis & Connell, 1989).

The purposes of this study was fourfold:
1) To better understand the social causes and effects of children in each of these four gender role categories.
2) To increase awareness and general knowledge of the often-overlooked undifferentiated group.
3) To determine which of the gender role groups are most likely to use and receive various forms of aggressive behavior.
4) To investigate peer victimization and levels of acceptance, distress, depression, distress, avoidance, and loneliness as a result of aggressive behaviors.

Aggression is a behavior that is commonly exhibited by children in a wide variety of forms. Aggression is defined as a behavior that is meant to hurt or harm others (Brehm & Kassin, 1990). Many people associate aggression with boys, however, this mainly the overt or physical forms of aggression, such as hitting, kicking, punching, that is most commonly found among boys. Girls are also found to have a similar degree of aggressive behavior, however, girls have more recently been found to exhibit a different form of aggression (Crick & Wellman, 1997). The feminine form of aggression is known as relational aggression and has often been overlooked in past studies. Relational aggression is defined as the intention to harm others by damaging or threatening to damage personal relationships, friendships, and social acceptances, which are areas that are generally highly important to young girls. Examples of relational forms of aggression include acts of exclusion, ignoring, and rumor spreading (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995).

As a result of the aggressive behaviors, children become both overtly and relationally victimized by the repetitive abuse. Past studies have examined relationally aggressive children, but only recently have the victims of this particular aggressive behavior become the focus of study. These victims often become the constant and repeated targets of relational aggression and are thought to be more inclined to depression and social development problems in their future years (Crick & Bigbee, 1995). Victims of overt aggression are the children who receive physical abuse. They too can develop poor social adjustment as a result of repeated victimization. Social adjustment problems include peer acceptance, distress, depression, and loneliness (Crick & Bigbee, 1995).

Social adjustment is the status in which one socially compiles. This includes such negative social elements as depression, acceptance, distress, loneliness and avoidance. These factors of social interactions are usually the result of repeated victimization, but can also be influenced by such factors as aggression levels, and gender role categories.

Research has not addressed gender roles and childrenÕs aggression or victimization status. This project investigated these roles and status in order to gain a better understanding of the important factors of a child's social development. Because it has been found that children who exhibit feminine traits tend to be more characteristic of internalizing behaviors, the first hypothesis was that they will exhibit low levels of aggression, because aggression is typically associated with forwardness and assertiveness. The second hypothesis of this study was to further support the evidence that femininity entails higher levels of distress and self-esteem issues. The third hypothesis was that because past studies have found overt aggression to be typical of boys, the children who exhibit masculine traits would have the highest levels of overt aggression and the lowest levels of restraint. The fourth hypothesis, was that children who exhibit androgynous traits would have less social adjustment difficulties. Because relational aggression, which is meant to hurt and harm the feelings of others through relationship abuse, is characteristic of girls, it was thought that the more masculine girls (girls with externalizing traits) would be less likely to fall victim to this behavior. Finally, the fifth hypothesis was that because the undifferentiated children have not yet developed their gender normative roles or any gender-specific roles, they would tend to have emotional instability, causing them to be easy and repeated targets of aggression.

Methods

Participants

A total of 422 children, 210 girls and 212 boys (50.2% boys and 49.8% girls), grades four through six (ages 9-11) from three moderately sized Midwestern towns participated in this research. These children were of lower-middle class families with approximately 84.9% European-American, 14.5% African-American, and 0.6% of other ethnicities. Parental consent was obtained from all participants.

Procedure

The data for this research project was collected by University of Minnesota students. The analyses, however, were conducted by the author. In return, some data was collected to be used for future research purposes. The children participated in three classroom-setting, group-administered sessions. The sessions were held three times during the school year. In the first session, children determined and nominated peers associated with relationally and overtly aggressive behaviors. A peer-nomination procedure which was developed in a past study by Gropeter and Crick in 1996, was used to assess childrenÕs use of aggression against peers. This instrument consisted of a relational aggression sub-scale where children were asked for example, to identify Òkids who try to make other kids not like a certain person by spreading rumors about them or talking behind their backsÓ (see appendix); an overt aggression sub-scale, where they were asked to identify Òkids who hit, kick or punch other kidsÓ; and a pro-social behavior scale, where they are asked to identify Òkids who try to cheer up other kids who are upset or sad about something.Ó In the second session, children nominated peers who were relationally or overtly victimized. A peer reported Social Experience Questionare (SEQ-P; Crick & Bigbee, 1998) was used to assess childrenÕs perceptions of the positive and negative treatment of their peers.The SEQ-P consisted of three sub-scales. The first scale evaluated relational victimization, which asked about Òkids who get ignored by classmates when someone is mad at themÓ (see appendix). The second scale assessed overt victimization, which asked about Òkids who get beat up a lot by their classmates.Ó The third scale evaluated the recipients of pro-social acts, by asking about the Òkids who get a lot of help from others when they need it.Ó For each item, children nominated up to three peers who fit the description. The number of nominations children received from peers for each of the items was summed and standardized within classrooms. Total victimization scores were then created by summing childrenÕs scores for the items within each scale. The second session also included an assessment of acceptance levels. To determine the acceptance and adjustment levels of the participants, each child was asked a series of questions regarding their self and peer friendship status. Children were asked questions about exclusion, acceptance, depression, distress, avoidance, loneliness and happiness regarding both themselves and their peers. The third session involved a self-report of gender roles. To determine the gender characteristics of each child, a series of gender related questions were included in the Self Report interview packet. These questions evaluated the childÕs preference to gender normative and non-normative activity choices, and gender typical responses to hypothetical situations.

Results

Results found are bases on a data analysis accuracy level of 95%, meaning that the results found have only a 5% chance of any human error. Only results found within the accuracy level are regarded as Òsignificant,Ó data under the 95% accuracy level is otherwise considered to reflect ÒtrendsÓ and were not used in the following results.

Of the boys, 33% (70 boys) were determined to be undifferentiated; 34% (72 boys) were determined to be masculine; 9% (19 boys) were determined to be feminine; 24.1% (51 boys) were determined to be androgynous. Of the girls, 19% (40 girls) were determined to be undifferentiated; 8.1% (17 girls) were determined to be masculine; 38.1% (80 girls) were determined to be feminine; 34.8% (73 girls) were determined to be androgynous.

As expected, masculine children, regardless of sex, were self reported to contain the highest levels of physical aggression with 38.6% and feminine children were reported to contain the least with only 1.8%. Masculine children were, however, significantly found to be the least relationally victimized of all gender role groups with only 7.4%. Once again, as expected, undifferentiated children had the most social adjustment problems and androgynous children had the least. Undifferentiated children were found to be the most depressed with 40.8% reporting levels of depression, and androgynous children were found to be the least with only 14.3%.

Derived from peer reports, it was found in several instances that undifferentiated children, regardless of sex, continued a poor social adjustment pattern. In the distress measurement, the undifferentiated group was found to be the most distressed with 33.3% reporting levels of distress, and masculine children being the least with only 18.8% (see Graph 5). This same pattern continued in the loneliness measurement, with 34.3% of the undifferentiated children reporting to be lonely and only 14.9% of the masculine children (see Graph 6). Undifferentiated children also reported higher levels of avoidance that all the other groups with 33.3% (see graph 7). Undifferentiated children were also found to be the least accepted with only 12.2% reporting acceptance levels. The androgynous children, as expected, were however reported to be the most accepted with 45.9% reporting high levels of acceptance (see Graph 8).

The role of biological sex within the gender role categories effected the results of the rejection scale. Interestingly, feminine girls were reported to be the most rejected of all other children with 40% reporting levels of rejection. Feminine boys, however were reported to be the least rejected, over all the other children, with only 11.1% reporting levels of rejection (see Graph 9).

Figures

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Conclusion

This study further supported the fact that gender roles are an aspect to the social adjustment status of children. Masculine children, regardless of sex, were generally well accepted and rarely rejected or distressed. They were, as expected, more inclined to exert physical aggression, which may explain their fairly high adjustment scores and high depression. Quite possibly, the other children recognize and look for the assertive, external behaviors of these children, and therefore keep a level of positive peer interaction in attempts to avoid negative, external aggression. The masculine children were therefore rarely lonely, rejected or distressed, but were often avoided by their peers and therefore more often depressed.

Feminine children, regardless of sex, were generally cradled in the middle of the other groups in their social adjustment. This is possibly due to a stronger emotional state with respect to the fact that they had a specific gender role established and were therefore less inclined to distress. They were, as expected, the lowest on aggression levels, due to their internal and more reserved behavioral patterns. The feminine girls were however, highly rejected by their peers possibly due to their internal behaviors. These behaviors exerted are often highly reserved and therefore the feminine children become overlooked by the other children. This rejection is more than likely the cause of their higher depression scores.

Androgynous children, regardless of sex, as expected, generally had the least social adjustment problems. There were rarely depressed, lonely or avoided, and were significantly accepted by their peers. This is quite possibly due to the fact that they exhibit both feminine and masculine traits and are therefore accepted by both groups. Androgynous children were however, more distressed, possibly because they found themselves to be comfortable in both gender roles yet not completely favoring either. Surprisingly, androgynous boys were reported to be rejected quite often, this may be because the other boys are more established in their gender roles (masculine and feminine) and are therefore less rejected than the androgynous boys.

Undifferentiated children were as expected the most poorly socially adjusted. These children, regardless of sex, were the most depressed, distressed and lonely of all the other children. They were also the most avoided, highly rejected, and the least accepted. This negative social atmosphere is more than likely due to the fact that these children exhibit neither feminine nor masculine traits. They are therefore unable to fit into any gender role group and are in return, neglected from the groups and unaccepted by their peers. This rejection and unacceptance is the cause of their negative internalization problems, such as their high levels of depression, distress and loneliness.

This study led to a new understanding of what causes and effects the negative social interactions within childrenÕs peer groups. It is clear that gender identity roles are a factor in the adjustment of children. Further information was acquired about the often overlooked undifferentiated children, and illustrated their tendency of negative social pattern. The information acquired from this study will help in the further understanding of both undifferentiated children in general, and in the understanding of the effects that gender roles play of childrenÕs social adjustment with peer groups.

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